LUMBEE HISTORY & CULTURE

HISTORY

Timeline , Genealogy , Lumbee Recognition , Federally Commissioned Reports , Lumbee Reorganization Act of 1934 , Lumbee Tribe and BIA Dealings , Past Efforts , Current Efforts , FAQ

Culture

Origins , Lumbee Logo , Modern Indians , Communities , Lumbee Way of Life , Who Are the Lumbee

Lumbee Recognition

The Lumbee are the present-day descendants of the Cheraw Tribe and have continuously existed in and around Robeson County since the early part of the eighteenth century. (Note: A brief timeline of Lumbee history can be found by clicking here.) In 1885, the tribe was recognized as Indian by the State of North Carolina. The tribe has sought full federal recognition from the United States Government since 1888. In 1956, Congress passed the Lumbee Act, which recognized the tribe as Indian. However, the Act withheld the full benefits of federal recognition from the tribe. Efforts are currently underway to pass federal legislation that grants full recognition to the Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina. The following sections detail the Lumbee Tribe's history, origins, religion, language, and education, as well as studies and efforts for federal recognition.

-Back to top of Page-

Federally Commissioned Reports

In the last century, there were numerous federally commissioned studies conducted by anthropologists, ethnologists, and historians regarding the Lumbee tribe.

In 1912, legislation was introduced to the Senate to establish a school for the tribe. When the bill was sent to committee, the committee requested information from the Department of the Interior. The Indian Office sent Charles F. Pierce, the Supervisor of Indian Schools, to Robeson County to conduct a study of the tribe. Pierce reported that the state and county were providing funds to educate the 1,976 school-age Indian children. He also stated in his report that "…one would readily class a large majority [of the Lumbee] as being at least three-fourths Indian".

On April 28, 1914, the Senate called for an investigation into the status and conditions of the Indians of Robeson and adjoining counties. The Indian Office sent Special Indian Agent O.M. McPherson to the county to obtain information regarding the educational system of the tribe. In his report, submitted to the Senate on January 4, 1915, he wrote:

While these Indians are essentially an agricultural people, I believe them to be as capable of learning the mechanical trades as the average white youth. The foregoing facts suggest the character of the educational institution that should be established for them, in case Congress sees fit to make the necessary appropriation, namely the establishment of an agricultural and mechanical school, in which domestic science shall also be taught.

John Reed Swanton, a noted anthropologist-historian, was called upon in the 1930's to provide his opinion of the origins of the Lumbee tribe. His opinion was as follows:

The evidence available thus seems to indicate that the Indians of Robeson County who have been called Croatan and Cherokee are descended mainly from certain Siouan tribes of which the most prominent were the Cheraw and Keyauwee, but they probably included as well remnants of the Eno, and Shakori, and very likely some of the coastal groups such as the Waccamaw and Cape Fears. It is not improbable that a few families or small groups of Algonquian or Iroquoian may have cast their lot with this body of people, but contributions from such sources are relatively insignificant. Although there is some reason to think that the Keyauwee tribe actually contributed more blood to the Robeson County Indians than any other, the name is not widely known, whereas that of the Cheraw has been familiar to historians, geographers and ethnologists in one form or another since the time of De Soto and has a firm position in the cartography of the region. The Cheraws, too, seem to have taken a leading part in opposing the colonists during and immediately after the Yamasee uprising. Therefore, if the name of any tribe is to be used in connection with this body of six or eight thousand people, that of the Cheraw would, in my opinion, be most appropriate.

In 1935, Indian Agent Fred Baker was sent to Robeson County in response to a proposed resettlement project for the Lumbee and an attempt to organize as a tribe under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. Baker reported that:

…I find that the sense of racial solidarity is growing stronger and that the members of this tribe are cooperating more and more with each other with the object in view of promoting the mutual benefit of all the members. It is clear to my mind that sooner of later government action will have to be taken in the name of justice and humanity to aid them.

D'Arcy McNickle, from the United States Office of Indian Affairs, came to Robeson County in 1936 to collect affidavits and other data from Lumbee people registering as Indian under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. McNickle stated, "…there are reasons for believing that until comparatively recently some remnant of language still persisted among these people".

     
Examples of photographs taken during McNickle's visit

In the 1960's, Smithsonian ethnologists Dr. William Sturtevant and Dr. Samuel Stanley describe the Lumbee as "…larger than any other Indian group in the United States except the Navajo", and give a population of 31,380 Lumbee (from North and South Carolina) in 1960.

-Back to top of Page-

Past Efforts

In 1888, the Lumbee Tribe petitioned to Congress for recognition and assistance. The petition sought federal assistance for the tribe and for the tribe's schools. The petition was denied due to a lack of funding by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.

Draft of the 1888 Petition

A bill to appropriate funds for the education of the tribe's children was introduced in Congress in 1889. Similar bills were introduced in 1910 and 1911.

In 1913, the Department of the Interior sent Charles F. Pierce, Supervisor of Indian Schools, to Robeson County to investigate the tribe in response to legislation introduced in Congress. Pierce opposed federal assistance to the tribe, but acknowledged their Indian origins. (See Education for more)

In 1914, the Secretary of the Interior was directed by the Senate to investigate the tribe and report any findings to Congress. Special Indian Agent O.M. McPherson was appointed to make the trip to Robeson County. His 252-page report covered the Tribe's history and current situation.

More bills were introduced to Congress in 1924, 1932 and 1933.

Finally, in 1956, Congress passed the Lumbee Act, which recognized the tribe as Indian. However, the Act withheld the full benefits of federal recognition from the tribe.

Legislation was introduced to Congress in 1988 to provide full federal recognition to the tribe. The Congressional Research Service reviewed the 1956 Act at the request of the Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs and concluded the following:

The 1956 Lumbee legislation clearly did not establish entitlement of the Lumbee Indians for federal services. It also clearly named the group and denominated them as Indians. Without a court decision squarely confronting the issue of whether the 1956 statute confers federal recognition on the Lumbee, there is insufficient documentation to determine if the statute effects federal recognition of the Lumbees. It is, however, a step toward recognition and would be a factor that either the Department of the Interior or a court would have to weigh along with others to determine whether the Lumbees are entitled to federal recognition.

Again in 1989, bills were introduced in both houses of Congress to grant full federal recognition to the tribe, but neither were passed.

In the United States House of Representatives, H.R. 898 was introduced on February 25, 2003, by Congressman Mike McIntyre of North Carolina. On that same day, it was referred to the Committee on House Resources. An executive comment was requested from the Department of the Interior by the committee on March 10, 2003. The full text of H.R. 898 can be found by clicking here. The free Adobe Acrobat Reader is required to view and print the bill.

The Committee on House Resources held a hearing on H.R. 898 on April 1, 2004.

In the United States Senate, S. 420 was introduced on February 14, 2003, by Senator Elizabeth Dole of North Carolina. On that same day, it was referred to the Committee on Indian Affairs. The full text of S. 420 can be found by clicking here. The free Adobe Acrobat Reader is required to view and print the bill.

The Senate Committee on Indian Affairs held a hearing on S.420 on September 17, 2003. On October 29, 2003, the committee held a business meeting to discuss the bill and voted to move the bill out of committee so that it may be voted on by the entire Senate.

-Back to top of Page-

Current Efforts

The current House Bill H.R. 65 has been introduced by Rep. Mike McIntyre. We hope to get action soon this year. March 18, 2009 the B.I.A. voiced its support for the recognition of The Lumbee Tribe via congressional legislation, a reversal of their prior recommendations.

-Back to top of Page-

Modern Lumbee Traditions

Female Lumbee traditional regalia is a Southern style dress worn with pine cone patchwork attached to an apron and a matching shawl. The Pine Cone Patchworkwas inspired by a quilt made by Henry Berry Lowry's daughter, and is distinctly Lumbee in design. The patchwork design was initially created for Natasha Wagner, a former Miss Indian USA by Hayes A. Locklear and has since become a staple in area pow wow's.

Lumbee Homecoming is a tradition among the tribe that has been held annually since 1970. Homecoming is especially important in that it brings together members of families, many from great distances, for a weeklong celebration of Lumbee culture. Festivities include a parade, a pow wow, pageants, and other cultural events.

The ethnographer Frank Speck researched the use of gourds by Lumbee in the 1930's, and compared their use with that of other American Indian tribes.

Mary Margaret Steedly wrote her Master's thesis in 1979 on thefolk medical system used by a Lumbee healer, Vernon Cooper. She found that Cooper's healing practice combined homeopathy, fundamentalist Christian faith healing, traditional Indian herbal medicine, and some elements of non-Native curing techniques. She also described the system as a unique expression of the tribe's social and cultural setting.

In 1977 and 1978, Edward M. Croom spent 2 years documenting plant remedies among the Lumbee. He interviewed 25 Lumbee elders who learned plant remedies from their family and friends as a normal part of childhood. Croom also compared Lumbee use of medicinal plants to other American Indian cultures and found numerous similarities.

-Back to top of Page-

Origins

The earliest document showing Indian communities in the area of Drowning Creek is a map prepared by John Herbert, the commissioner of Indian trade for the Wineau Factory on the Black River, in 1725. Herbert identifies the four Siouan-speaking communities as the Saraws, Pedee, Scavanos, and Wacomas. (Note: Drowning Creek is presently known as the Lumber River, and flows through present-day Robeson County. Many Lumbee people also know it as the Lumbee River.)

In 1754, it was reported that there was an Indian settlement consisting of 50 families located on Drowning Creek. That same year, North Carolina Governor Matthew Rowan proclaimed the county of Anson a "frontier to the Indians". Drowning Creek formed the border between Anson and Bladen counties and the settlement was located on the Anson side of the border. In 1771, a convicted felon by the name of Winsler Driggers was captured "near Drowning Creek, in the Charraw settlement" (South Carolina Gazette October 3, 1771). This mention, along with no evidence that a new settlement was established or the old settlement was abandoned, confirms that the settlement on Drowning Creek in 1754 was a Cheraw settlement.

-Back to top of Page-

FAQ

What does the term "federally recognized" mean?
Only tribes who maintain a legal relationship with the U.S. government through binding treaties, acts of Congress, executive orders, etc., are officially "recognized" by the federal government. Once "recognized" a tribe has a legal relationship with the United States. There are currently more than 440 federally recognized tribes in the United States, including some 200 village groups in Alaska. No treaty exists between the Lumbee and the United States. Typically, treaties were entered into when a tribe posed a threat to the United States, or when a tribe possessed minerals and gold desired by the United States. Because Lumbee lived at peace with its non-Indian neighbors and did not possess any valuable minerals or gold, the United States had little reason to treaty with the Lumbee. However, the United States Congress did enact a law in 1956 which recognized the Lumbee, while withholding all privileges and benefits normally associated with recognition.

What does "tribal sovereignty" mean and why is it important to American Indians?
Tribal sovereignty describes the right of federally recognized tribes to govern themselves and the existence of a government-to-government relationship with the United States. Thus, a tribe is not a ward of the government, but an independent nation with the right to form its own government, adjudicate legal cases within its borders, levy taxes within its borders, establish its membership, and decide its own future fate. The federal government has a trust responsibility to protect tribal lands, assets, resources, and treaty rights. For purposes of Lumbee, however, the State of North Carolina will continue civil and criminal jurisdiction over Lumbee. And, while the Tribe is governed by a Tribal constitution, the Lumbee constitution court may only hear internal matters that arise from interpretation of the Lumbee Tribal Constitution.

Do Indians pay taxes?
All Indians are subject to federal income taxes. As sovereign entities, tribal governments have the power to levy taxes on reservation lands. Some tribes do and some do not. As a result, Indians and non-Indians may or may not pay sales taxes on goods and services purchased on the reservation, depending on the Tribe. However, whenever a member of an Indian tribe conducts business off the reservation, that person, like everyone else, pays both state and local taxes. State income tax is not paid on reservation or trust land. For purposes of Lumbee, Robeson County is deemed the equivalent of a "reservation" solely for the purpose of qualifying Lumbee people for Indian Health Services. Robesonians will continue to own and dispose of their land in the same manner as they presently own and dispose of land, including the payment of all property taxes.

Do American Indians receive any special rights or benefits from the U.S. Government?
Contrary to popular belief, Indians to not receive payments from the federal government simply because they have Indian blood. Funds distributed to a person of Indian descent may represent mineral lease income on property that is held in trust by the United States or compensation for lands taken in connection with governmental projects. Some Indian tribes receive benefits from the federal government in fulfillment of treaty obligations or for the extraction of tribal natural resources - a percentage of which may be distributed as per capita among the tribe's membership. For purposes of Lumbee, the Lumbee will be eligible for certain federal programs (e.g. Indian health care, BIA scholarships) that they do not qualify for now because of the lack of federal recognition.

Can a group be recognized as "Indian" if they have lost their language?
Absolutely. In fact, there are a number of tribes who have sustained language loss, and there are even greater numbers of Indian people who no longer speak their native language.

Why are the Lumbee circumventing the administrative process of the Bureau of Indian affairs and seeking full deferral acknowledgement directly from Congress?
The Lumbee Act of 1956 recognizes the Lumbee as Indian, but does not grant to them the services that other tribes receive because of their status as Indian. Among the BIA criteria, however, is that the petitioning group cannot be "subject to congressional legislation terminating or forbidding the Federal relationship". Because the 1956 Act, in effect, forbids the federal relationship, it precludes the Lumbee Tribe from utilizing the BIA administrative process to obtain federal recognition. To correct this problem, however, government officials have proposed to allow the Lumbee to participate in a dual process. That is, pass a congressional amendment to the language in the 1956 Act that would allow the Tribe to still participate in the BIA administrative process. However, if passed, this dual process would be contrary to the treatment of other similarly situated tribes. For example, the Ysleta del Sur Pueblo of Texas and the Pascua Yaqui Tribe of Arizona were subject to very similar legislation to the 1956 Act. Yet, they were accorded full federal recognition by special congressional legislation without having to participate in the BIA administrative process. If the Lumbee are required to go through the congressional legislative process and the BIA administrative process, it will be the only tribe in history singled out in this way. Therefore, to be consistent and fair, the Lumbee must be granted the full benefits of federal recognition through special congressional legislation.

Is the Lumbee Tribe pursuing federal recognition for the sole purpose of gaming?
The Lumbee Tribe has been pursuing federal recognition since 1888. In that petition, the Lumbee requested educational assistance from the federal government but was denied. Since that time, the Lumbee have petitioned the federal government several times regarding issues of education and federal recognition. From 1910 to 1924, at least five separate bills were introduced in Congress seeking federal recognition of the Tribe. The Tribe attempted recognition again in 1932 and 1933 when similar bills were submitted to Congress for consideration. It is clear from the history of the Lumbee Tribe and their relations with Congress that they seek the simple acknowledgement of their tribal existence, and the right to self-governance to protect and preserve the Lumbee way of life.

In addition, the Lumbee Constitution required that any ordinance passed by the Tribal Council authorizing gaming must be certified for referendum by the membership of the Lumbee Tribe. Therefore, the Lumbee Tribal Council itself cannot impose gaming. The history of the Lumbee pursuit of federal recognition, as well as the language in their Constitution, clearly suggests that gaming is the least of all motives for the Tribe's pursuit of federal recognition.

-Back to top of Page-

Lumbee Logo

The circular shape of the Lumbee Logo is symbolic of the Circle of Life and it emphasizes the importance of each Lumbee being a whole person. The four parts of the circle represent the four qualities of a balanced life: the spiritual, the emotional, the physical, and the intellect.

The colors and location of the colors represent the four directions - East (yellow), South (red), West (black) and North (white). It is the belief that together they not only represent a well-balanced individual, but also a complete human being. This balance and completeness is universal and represents the equality of all humankind, thus the colors - red, yellow, black and white.

The Lumbee Pine Cone Patchwork surrounding the Circle of Life represents the pride, power and will of the Lumbee Tribe.

The four directions, colors and Lumbee Pine Cone Patchwork are central features of the Lumbee Logo and portray the coming together of the old and new traditions in one symbol of unity for the Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina.

-Back to top of Page-

Communities

Families are identified by the communities in which they live. Each community consists of large extended families tied together by marriages. The oldest adult often heads these families. Decisions were made by the oldest members of the family. And in times of crisis, these elders came together to make decisions for the tribe as a whole. Intra-tribal marriages strengthened ties between families and communities. The 1987 Lumbee Petition described Lumbee communities as follows:

[They] were linked together by their extensive kinship ties, church affiliations, their sense of themselves as Indians, and their control of their educational system, all of which served as a mechanism for defining tribal membership and maintaining tribal boundaries.

Communities are basically self-governing. One form of self-governance in the early 1900's was exhibited by a fraternal organization known as the Red Men's Lodge. By 1914, there were lodges in Prospect, Magnolia, Pembroke, Saddletree, Oxendine, and Union Chapel. Lodge members maintained social order, carried out ceremonies, marched in parades, and conducted funerals. The 1987 Lumbee Petition states that, "[w]ith so many prominent leaders it is easy to understand how the lodges could maintain order and, at the same time, protect the tribal members from organized violence from whites in the area".

Present-day tribal districts preserve longstanding community boundaries.

-Back to top of Page-

Lumbee Way of Life

Mary Norment in 1875 describes a typical Lumbee community as follows:

…[you] leave the public road and take a foot-path leading through the woods, across branches and swamps, until [reaching] a worn fence made of pine rails, inclosing a half cleared patch of land containing three or four acres, in the center of which generally stands the Indian cabin[s]…A little distanse from the cabin will be found in the yard a well of water, or rather a hole dug in the ground … A poor, half-starved fice dog, used for hunting "possums" and "wild varmints" will generally be found inside of the inclosure … Two or three acres cleared are ploughed and planted in corn, potatoes, and rice… The bed is made on the floor (generally a clay floor) … No division in the cabin … The above picture is true of a great majority of the Indians…

Winter slaughtering of animals is a tradition among the Lumbee people. Adolph Dial and David Eliades describe this tradition in "The Only Land I Know":

For a very long time [Lumbees] have enjoyed hog killings as events which brought neighbors together for a day of work and fun. Pork was such an important staple in the local diet that most of the corn grown prior to World War II was fed to hogs, and most of the hogs were then butchered for home consumption.

Until comparatively recently, farming was the principal occupation among the Lumbee. Adolph Dial and David Eliades describe farm life as follows in "The Only Land I Know":

…[A] daily round of milking, feeding, gathering, and, depending on the time of the year, of planting, cultivating or harvesting…In earlier days a typical forty-acre farmer put about half his land in money crops, such as cotton and tobacco; fifteen acres of corn, two acres for garden vegetables and a potato patch, and three acres for hay.

-Back to top of Page-

Who are the Lumbee

The 55,000 members of the Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina reside primarily in Robeson, Hoke,Cumberland and Scotland counties. The Lumbee Tribe is the largest tribe in North Carolina, the largest tribe east of the Mississippi River and the ninth largest in the nation. The Lumbee take their name from the Lumbee River which winds its way through Robeson County. Pembroke, North Carolina is the economic, cultural and political center of the tribe.

The ancestors of the Lumbee were mainly Cheraw and related Siouan-speaking Indians who have lived in the area of what is now Robeson County since the 1700s. The Lumbee people have been recognized by the state of North Carolina since 1885, and at the same time established a separate school system that would benefit tribal members. In 1887, the state established the Croatan Normal Indian School, which is today The University of North Carolina at Pembroke. In 1956 a bill was passed by the United States Congress which recognized the Lumbee as Indian, but denied the tribe full status as a federally recognized Indian tribe. Federal recognition for the tribe is currently being sought through federal legislation. For more information regarding Lumbee Federal Recognition, click here.

-Back to top of Page-

Lumbee Tribe & BIA

When Congress passed the Lumbee Act in 1956, it recognized the Lumbee as Indian but withheld the full benefits of federal recognition from the tribe. It also precluded the tribe from participating in the Bureau of Indian Affairs' (BIA) administrative acknowledgement process for federal recognition. BIA policy states that the petitioning group cannot be "subject to congressional legislation terminating or forbidding the Federal relationship". The Solicitor for the Department of the Interior concluded that the Act is legislation forbidding/terminating the federal relationship.

The tribe now has two options to receive federal recognition. First, there could be a congressional amendment to the Lumbee Act of 1956 that would allow the tribe to participate in the BIA administrative process for federal recognition. However, if this avenue is pursued, the Lumbee will be the only tribe to go through the congressional legislative process as well as the BIA administrative process. The other option would be special congressional legislation granting full benefits of federal recognition to the tribe. The Ysleta del Sur Pueblo of Texas and Pascua Yaqui Tribe of Arizona were subject to legislation similar to the Lumbee Act and have received federal recognition through special Congressional legislation

-Back to top of Page-